When Science Replaced Authority From Metaphysics to Modern Knowledge |سائنس كا عروج скачать в хорошем качестве

When Science Replaced Authority From Metaphysics to Modern Knowledge |سائنس كا عروج

Bertrand Russell considers the work of Copernicus, Galileo, Kepler, and Newton as the foundation of modern science because together they completely changed how human beings understand the universe. Copernicus made the first radical break by removing the Earth from the center of the cosmos and placing the Sun there. This was not just an astronomical change—it was a philosophical shock that challenged religious and traditional authority. Kepler then transformed Copernicus’s idea into a precise scientific theory by proving, through mathematical analysis of observation, that planetary motion is not circular but elliptical. This destroyed the ancient Greek belief that heavenly motion must be perfect and circular, showing that nature follows mathematical laws rather than metaphysical ideals. Galileo strengthened this revolution by insisting that observation and experiment, not tradition, are the true sources of knowledge. Using the telescope, he provided direct evidence for the Copernican system and openly challenged the Church, which made him a symbol of the conflict between scientific inquiry and religious authority. Finally, Newton unified all these discoveries into one grand system. By formulating the laws of motion and universal gravitation, he showed that the same laws govern both the heavens and the Earth. According to Russell, this was the final victory of the scientific worldview, because it replaced purpose-based explanations with mathematical laws. Russell highlights these four thinkers because together they mark the moment when knowledge shifted from authority and metaphysics to reason, mathematics, and empirical science—a transformation that defined the 17th century as the true beginning of modern science. #HistoryOfScience #ScientificRevolution #Copernicus #Galileo #Newton #Kepler #Philosophy #Metaphysics #ScienceAndMeaning #CriticalThinking #HumanKnowledge #ModernWorld