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In 1968, following hundreds of similar riots nationwide, a commission appointed by President Lyndon Johnson concluded that "[o]ur nation is moving toward two societies, one black, one white-separate and unequal" and that "[s]egregation and poverty have created in the racial ghetto a destructive environment totally unknown to most white Americans." The Kerner Commission (headed by Illinois Governor Otto Kerner) added that "[w]hat white Americans have never fully understood-but what the Negro can never forget-is that white society is deeply implicated in the ghetto. White institutions created it, white institutions maintain it, and white society condones it." Although a relatively small black middle class has been permitted to integrate itself into mainstream America, those left behind are more segregated now than they were in 1968. When the Kerner Commission blamed "white society" and "white institutions," it employed euphemisms to avoid naming the culprits everyone knew at the time. It was not a vague white society that created ghettos but government-federal, state, and local-that employed explicitly racial laws, policies, and regulations to ensure that black Americans would live impoverished, and separately from whites. Baltimore's ghetto was not created by private discrimination, income differences, personal preferences, or demographic trends, but by purposeful action of government in violation of the Fifth, Thirteenth, and Fourteenth Amendments. These constitutional violations have never been remedied, and we are paying the price in the violence.